Austronesian’s Traces in Sasak: Historical Linguistics Study
Main Article Content
Keywords
Austronesian, historical linguistics, innovation, retention, Proto-Austronesia
Abstract
The Sasak language spoken by the Sasak ethnic group in Lombok, Indonesia is one of the many Austronesian languages. As a descendant of Proto-Austronesian (PAN), Sasak is assumed to retain traces of its Austronesian heritage. This research explains the phonological characteristics of PAN in Sasak language by using the working principle in historical linguistic studies. Etymon data from Proto-Austronesian were gathered through literature review, while 200 basic vocabulary and 500 culturally vocabulary were collected through interviews. The interviews involved native speakers of four distinct Sasak dialects, with each dialect represented by three carefully selected informants based on predefined linguistic criteria. Employing a comparative method with a top-down approach, the study identified 343 PAN etyma in Sasak, of which 190 (55.39%) were determined to be inherited lexicons. Among these inherited items, 25 retained their original forms, while the remaining underwent phonological innovations. The other 153 etyma (44.61%) showed no evidence of direct inheritance. Retained Austronesian phonemes include *p, *t, *d, *m, *n, *ɲ, *s, *l, and *r —9 out of the 28 PAN phonemes—where most were regularly retained except for *r and *ɲ, which showed irregularities. Innovations were observed in *C, *c, *z, *j, *N, *S, *h, *R, *ay, *aw, and *uy. Additionally, certain phonemes, such as *k, *?, *w, *g, *ŋ, *y, *i, *u, *Ə, and *a, exhibited both retention and innovation. The retention and innovation in Sasak followed four distinct types: (1) regular retention and regular innovation; (2) regular retention and irregular innovation; (3) irregular retention and regular innovation; (4) irregular retention and irregular innovation. The high degree of innovation and non-inherited lexicon indicate that Sasak has been separated from its Austronesian ancestors for a long time. This study plays a crucial role in classifying languages within Indonesia, identifying the center of Sasak ethnic distribution on Lombok Island, and exploring the etymology of the Sasak language.
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References
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Bellwood, P. and Eusebio Z Dizon (2008). Austronesian cultural origins. out of Taiwan, via the Batanes Islands, and onwards to Western Polynesia, in Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, Roger Blench, Malcom D. Ross, Ilia Peiros, Marie Lin (eds.), Past Human Migrations in East Asia Matching Archeology, Linguistics and Genetics. Routledge, 23–39.
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Bellwood, P. S. (2017). Prehistory and human migration in island Southeast Asia. First islanders. Wiley‐Blackwell.
Bellwood, Peter (1996). Hierarchy, founder ideology and Austronesian expansion, in James J Fox and Clifford Sather (eds.), Origins, Ancestry and Alliance. Australian National University Press, 18–40.
Blust, R. A. (1978). Eastern Malayo-Polynesian: A subgrouping argument. In S. Wurm & L. Carrington (Eds.), Second International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics Proceedings Pacific Linguistics Series 61 (pp. 181–234). Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University.
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Blust, R. A. (2017). Historical linguistics and archaeology: An uneasy alliance. In P. J. Piper, H. Matsumura, & D. Bulbeck (Eds.), New perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific prehistory (pp. 275-291). Australian National University Press.
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Burhanuddin. 2020. The reflection of Proto-Austronesia to Sula: Preliminary testing of hypotesis Collins (1981). Humanus, 19(1): 90-103.
Burhanuddin. 2021. Bahasa Sakai sebagai Variasi Melayu: Tinjauan Aspek Linguistik Diakronis. Ranah: Jurnal Kajian Ilmu Bahasa, 10 (2), 326-340.
Bynon, T. (1979). Historical linguistics. Cambridge University Press.
Campbell, L. (2013). Historical linguistics: An introduction (3rd ed.). Edinburgh University Press.
Canda, E. (2024). Concise introduction to qualitative research for social work. The Spiritual Diversity and Social Work Initiative, The University of Kansas School of Social Welfare.
Conners, Thomas J (2020). Javanese undressed: Peripheral dialects in typological perspective, in David Gil and Antoinette Schapper (eds.), Austronesian undressed: How and why languages become isolating. John Benjamins, 253–86. https://doi.org/10.1075/tsl.129.05con
Crowley, T., & Bowern, C. (2010). An introduction to historical linguistics (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.
Fernandez, I. Y. (1996). Relasi historis kekerabatan bahasa Flores: Kajian linguistik historis komparatif terhadap sembilan bahasa di Flores. Nusa Indah.
Hadi, P. (2020). PAN reflex in Maya Language in West New Guinea: A preliminary study on understanding the concept of South Halmahera-West New Guniea. 4th International Conference on Language, Literature, Culture, and Education.
Handini, R. et. Al. (2018). Situs Lambanapu: Diaspora Austronesia di Sumba Timur. Amerta: Jurnal Penelitian dan Pengembangan Arkeologi, 36(2).
Hartatik. (2019). Religi Kaharingan sebagai jejak Austronesia pada orang Dayak. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Arkeologi.
Herusantosa, S. et.al. (1987). Pemetaan Bahasa-bahasa di Nusa Tenggara Barat. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia.
Hidayah, A.R. (2017). Jejak Austronesia di Situs Gua Gede, Pulau Nusa Penida, Bali. Forum Arkeologi, 30(1).
Himmelmann, N.P. (2018). Some preliminary observations on prosody and information structure in Austronesian languages of Indonesia and East Timor, in Sonja Riesberg, Asako Shiohara and Atsuko Utsumi (eds.), Perspectives on Information Structure in Austronesian Languages. Language Science Press, 347–74.
Hock, H.H. (1986). Principles of Historical Linguistics. Mouton de Gruyter.
Hoda, R. (2024). Qualitative research with socio-technical grounded theory. Springer.
Holton, G. (2017). A unified system of spatial orientation in the Austronesian and Non-Austronesian languages of Halmahera, in Antoinette Schapper (ed.), Contact and Substrate in the Languages of Wallacea (Part 1). Special issue of NUSA 62: 157–89.
Jeffers, R.J. & Lehiste, Ilse. (1979). Principle and methods for historical linguistics. The MIT Press.
Khan, S.N. (2014). Qualitative research method - phenomenology. Asian Social Science; Vol. 10, No. 21; 2014 . Canadian Center of Science and Education. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v10n21p298
Klamer, M. (2019). The dispersal of Austronesian languages in Island South East Asia: Current findings and debates. Language and Linguistics Compass, 13(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/lnc3.12325
Lailiyah, N. & Wijayanti, F.I. (2022). Kekerabatan Bahasa Jawa, Bali dan Bima: Perspektif linguistik historis komparatif. Linguistik Indonesia, 40(2): 327-345.
Lass, R. (1984). Phonology an introduction to basic concepts. Cambridge University Press.
Lehmann, W. P. 1973. Historical linguistics: An introduction. Routledge.
Luraghi, S. (2017). Typology and historical linguistics. In A. Y. Aikhenvald & R. M. W. Dixon (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of linguistic typology (pp. 95-23). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316135716.004
Lyon, J. (1981). Language and linguistics: An introduction. Cambridge.
Mahsun. (1995). Dialektologi diakronis suatu pengantar. Gadjah Mada University Press.
Mahsun. (2019). Metode penelitian bahasa: Aneka Metode, Teknik, dan Tahapannya. RajaGrafindo Press.
Mahsun. 2006. Kajian dialektologi diakronis Bahasa Sasak di Pulau Lombok. Gama Media.
Mbete, A. M. (1990). Rekonstruksi Protobahasa Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa Universitas Udayana]. Url: https://lib.ui.ac.id/detail?id=74944
McWhorter, J. (2019). Language families of the world. The Great Courses.
Meacham, W. (1995). Austronesian Origins and the Peopling of Taiwan, in Paul Jen-Kuei Li, Cheng-Hwa Tsang, Dah-an Ho, Ying-Kuei Huang and Chiu-Yu Tseng, (eds.), Austronesian Studies Relating to Taiwan. Taipei: Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 227–54.
Mukramah. 2024. Perubahan bunyi bahasa Proto Austronesia ke Bahasa Minangkabau. EduCompassion: Jurnal Integrasi Pendidikan Islam dan Global, 1(3): 153-15. https://doi.org/10.63142/educompassion.v1i3.120
Noble, C., Rola Ajjawi, Stephen Billett, Mark Goldszmidt (2025). How to approach qualitative observational research in workplace learning. The Clinical Teacher, 22(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/tct.70005
Nothofer, B. (1975). The reconstruction of Proto-Malayo-Javanic: An appreciation,, Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde.
Palmer, L.R. (1978). Descriptive and comparative linguistics : A critical introduction. Famer & Famer.
Paramarta, I.K., et.al. (2019). Jejak kata bilangan dalam prasasti berbahasa Bali kuno: Hubungan kekerabatannya dalam rumpun bahasa Melayu Polinesia. Forum Arkeologi, 32(2). https://doi.org/10.24832/fa.v32i2.564
Robins, R.H. (2014). General linguistics. 4th Edition. Taylor & Francis Group.
Ross, M. (2017). “Linguistic evidence for prehistory: Oceanic examples.” In Issues in Austronesian Historical Linguistics., edited by Hsiu-chuan Liao. Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society Special Publication No. 1. University of Hawaii Press.
Ross, M., & Greenhill, S. J. (2024). Methods in Malayo-Polynesian comparative-historical linguistics. In A. Adelaar & A. Schapper (Eds.), Malayo-Polynesian languages of Southeast Asia (pp. 25-34). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198807353.003.0003
Ross, M. D and Mark Durie (1996). Introduction, in Mark Durie and Malcolm D Ross (eds.), The comparative method reviewed: Irregularity and regularity in linguistic change. New York: Oxford University Press, 3–38.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195066074.003.0001
Sarwadi, G., et.al. (2019). Variasi leksikal Bahasa Sasak Dialek Kuto-Kute di Kabupaten Lombok Utara. Jurnal Kata: Penelitian tentang Ilmu Bahasa dan Sastra, 3 (1), 155-169.
Smith, A. D. (2017). The Western Malayo-Polynesian problem. Oceanic Linguistics, 56(2), 435-490.
Stephen J. L. (1990). The regularity of sound change: A Semitistic perspective. 1990. In Philip Baldi Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology. Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York.
Sudaryanto. (2015). Metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Sugianto & Hasby. 2023. The language variations used among speakers of Sasak Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara. JOLLT Journal of Languages and Language Teaching, 11(1).
Sumarlam et.al. (2017). Reflexes of Proto-Austronesia into Buru Language: Preliminary Step of Testing Collins Hypothesis (1981). Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Languages and Arts.
Thoir, N. (1983). Struktur Bahasa Sasak umum. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia.
Yondri, L. (2020). Menguak jejak tinggalan prasejarah di Kawasan Kabupaten Subang. Prosiding Balai Arkeologi Jawa Barat.
Adelaar, A. (2005b). Malayo-Sumbawan. Oceanic Linguistics, 44(2).
Adeyinka-Ojo, S. (2025). Digital and strategic qualitative research methodology. Notion Press Media Private Limited.
Antilla, R. (1972). An introduction to historical and comparative linguistics. The Macmillan Company.
Apriadi, B. et.al. (2018). Jejak Kebudayaan Austronesia Di Pantai Timur Sumatera Selatan. Kalpataru: Jurnal Sejarah dan Pembelajaran Sejarah, 20(1).
Arlotto, A. (1972). Introduction to Historical Linguistics. Houghton.
Austin, Peter K. (2000). Verbs, valence and voice in Sasak. In Peter K. Austin (ed.) Working Papers in Sasak, Vol 2, 5-23. Melbourne: University of Melbourne.
Austin, P. K., & Nothofer, B. (2012). The history of speech levels in Sasak, eastern Indonesia. In 12th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics.
Austin, P. K. (2014). Aksara Sasak, an endangered script and scribal practice. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Endangered Scripts of Island Southeast Asia, February, 1–12. https://docplayer.net/39228817-Aksara-sasak-an-endangered-script-and-scribal-practice.html
Baral, R. 2025. Walk & talk: Emerging qualitative research methods in sociology. Sociological Education, 6(1): 64 – 75. https://doi.org/10.59098/socioedu.v6i1.2026
Bellwood, P. (2024). The origins and spread of agriculture in the Indo-Pacific region: Gradualism and diffusion or revolution and colonization? In D. R. Harris (Ed.), The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in Eurasia (pp. 465-498). Routledge.
Bellwood, P. and Eusebio Z Dizon (2008). Austronesian cultural origins. out of Taiwan, via the Batanes Islands, and onwards to Western Polynesia, in Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, Roger Blench, Malcom D. Ross, Ilia Peiros, Marie Lin (eds.), Past Human Migrations in East Asia Matching Archeology, Linguistics and Genetics. Routledge, 23–39.
Bellwood, P. S. (1991). The Austronesian dispersal and the origin of languages. Scientific American, 265(1), 88-93.
Bellwood, P. S. (2017). Prehistory and human migration in island Southeast Asia. First islanders. Wiley‐Blackwell.
Bellwood, Peter (1996). Hierarchy, founder ideology and Austronesian expansion, in James J Fox and Clifford Sather (eds.), Origins, Ancestry and Alliance. Australian National University Press, 18–40.
Blust, R. A. (1978). Eastern Malayo-Polynesian: A subgrouping argument. In S. Wurm & L. Carrington (Eds.), Second International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics Proceedings Pacific Linguistics Series 61 (pp. 181–234). Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University.
Blust, R. A. (1993). Central and central-eastern Malayo-Polynesian. Oceanic Linguistics, 32, 241–293. https://doi. org/10.2307/3623195
Blust, R. A. (1995). The prehistory of the Austronesian‐Speaking People: A view from language. Journal of World Prehistory, 9(4), 453–510. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02221119
Blust, R. A. (2013). The Austronesian languages. Pacific Linguistics.
Blust, R. A. (2017). Historical linguistics and archaeology: An uneasy alliance. In P. J. Piper, H. Matsumura, & D. Bulbeck (Eds.), New perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific prehistory (pp. 275-291). Australian National University Press.
Blust, R. A., & Trussel, S. (2020). The Austronesian comparative dictionary (web ed.). Trussel’s Austronesian Comparative Dictionary. https://www.trussel2.com/acd/
Blust, R.A. (1984). The Austronesian homeland: A linguistic perspective. Asian Perspectives, 26 (1): 45-67.
Burhanuddin & Mahsun. (2025). The homeland and migration process of speaker South Halmahera Austronesian. Dialectologia, 34, 39-53. https://doi.org/10.1344/DIALECTOLOGIA.34.2
Burhanuddin. (2024). Tanah Asal dan Proses Migrasi Etnis Sasak di Pulau Lombok: Ke Arah Pengembangan Materi Ajar Berdimensi Kebhinekatunggalikaan. Laporan Penelitian Skema Penelitian Fundamental yang Didanai oleh DRTPM Kemdikbudristekdikti. Mataram: Universitas Mataram. .
Burhanuddin et.al. (2025). The homeland of the Sumbawa Ethnic: A historical linguistic study. International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 13(1), 39-53. https://doi.org/10.22034/ijscl.2025.2053195.3919
Burhanuddin. 2020. The reflection of Proto-Austronesia to Sula: Preliminary testing of hypotesis Collins (1981). Humanus, 19(1): 90-103.
Burhanuddin. 2021. Bahasa Sakai sebagai Variasi Melayu: Tinjauan Aspek Linguistik Diakronis. Ranah: Jurnal Kajian Ilmu Bahasa, 10 (2), 326-340.
Bynon, T. (1979). Historical linguistics. Cambridge University Press.
Campbell, L. (2013). Historical linguistics: An introduction (3rd ed.). Edinburgh University Press.
Canda, E. (2024). Concise introduction to qualitative research for social work. The Spiritual Diversity and Social Work Initiative, The University of Kansas School of Social Welfare.
Conners, Thomas J (2020). Javanese undressed: Peripheral dialects in typological perspective, in David Gil and Antoinette Schapper (eds.), Austronesian undressed: How and why languages become isolating. John Benjamins, 253–86. https://doi.org/10.1075/tsl.129.05con
Crowley, T., & Bowern, C. (2010). An introduction to historical linguistics (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.
Fernandez, I. Y. (1996). Relasi historis kekerabatan bahasa Flores: Kajian linguistik historis komparatif terhadap sembilan bahasa di Flores. Nusa Indah.
Hadi, P. (2020). PAN reflex in Maya Language in West New Guinea: A preliminary study on understanding the concept of South Halmahera-West New Guniea. 4th International Conference on Language, Literature, Culture, and Education.
Handini, R. et. Al. (2018). Situs Lambanapu: Diaspora Austronesia di Sumba Timur. Amerta: Jurnal Penelitian dan Pengembangan Arkeologi, 36(2).
Hartatik. (2019). Religi Kaharingan sebagai jejak Austronesia pada orang Dayak. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Arkeologi.
Herusantosa, S. et.al. (1987). Pemetaan Bahasa-bahasa di Nusa Tenggara Barat. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia.
Hidayah, A.R. (2017). Jejak Austronesia di Situs Gua Gede, Pulau Nusa Penida, Bali. Forum Arkeologi, 30(1).
Himmelmann, N.P. (2018). Some preliminary observations on prosody and information structure in Austronesian languages of Indonesia and East Timor, in Sonja Riesberg, Asako Shiohara and Atsuko Utsumi (eds.), Perspectives on Information Structure in Austronesian Languages. Language Science Press, 347–74.
Hock, H.H. (1986). Principles of Historical Linguistics. Mouton de Gruyter.
Hoda, R. (2024). Qualitative research with socio-technical grounded theory. Springer.
Holton, G. (2017). A unified system of spatial orientation in the Austronesian and Non-Austronesian languages of Halmahera, in Antoinette Schapper (ed.), Contact and Substrate in the Languages of Wallacea (Part 1). Special issue of NUSA 62: 157–89.
Jeffers, R.J. & Lehiste, Ilse. (1979). Principle and methods for historical linguistics. The MIT Press.
Khan, S.N. (2014). Qualitative research method - phenomenology. Asian Social Science; Vol. 10, No. 21; 2014 . Canadian Center of Science and Education. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v10n21p298
Klamer, M. (2019). The dispersal of Austronesian languages in Island South East Asia: Current findings and debates. Language and Linguistics Compass, 13(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/lnc3.12325
Lailiyah, N. & Wijayanti, F.I. (2022). Kekerabatan Bahasa Jawa, Bali dan Bima: Perspektif linguistik historis komparatif. Linguistik Indonesia, 40(2): 327-345.
Lass, R. (1984). Phonology an introduction to basic concepts. Cambridge University Press.
Lehmann, W. P. 1973. Historical linguistics: An introduction. Routledge.
Luraghi, S. (2017). Typology and historical linguistics. In A. Y. Aikhenvald & R. M. W. Dixon (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of linguistic typology (pp. 95-23). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316135716.004
Lyon, J. (1981). Language and linguistics: An introduction. Cambridge.
Mahsun. (1995). Dialektologi diakronis suatu pengantar. Gadjah Mada University Press.
Mahsun. (2019). Metode penelitian bahasa: Aneka Metode, Teknik, dan Tahapannya. RajaGrafindo Press.
Mahsun. 2006. Kajian dialektologi diakronis Bahasa Sasak di Pulau Lombok. Gama Media.
Mbete, A. M. (1990). Rekonstruksi Protobahasa Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa Universitas Udayana]. Url: https://lib.ui.ac.id/detail?id=74944
McWhorter, J. (2019). Language families of the world. The Great Courses.
Meacham, W. (1995). Austronesian Origins and the Peopling of Taiwan, in Paul Jen-Kuei Li, Cheng-Hwa Tsang, Dah-an Ho, Ying-Kuei Huang and Chiu-Yu Tseng, (eds.), Austronesian Studies Relating to Taiwan. Taipei: Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 227–54.
Mukramah. 2024. Perubahan bunyi bahasa Proto Austronesia ke Bahasa Minangkabau. EduCompassion: Jurnal Integrasi Pendidikan Islam dan Global, 1(3): 153-15. https://doi.org/10.63142/educompassion.v1i3.120
Noble, C., Rola Ajjawi, Stephen Billett, Mark Goldszmidt (2025). How to approach qualitative observational research in workplace learning. The Clinical Teacher, 22(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/tct.70005
Nothofer, B. (1975). The reconstruction of Proto-Malayo-Javanic: An appreciation,, Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde.
Palmer, L.R. (1978). Descriptive and comparative linguistics : A critical introduction. Famer & Famer.
Paramarta, I.K., et.al. (2019). Jejak kata bilangan dalam prasasti berbahasa Bali kuno: Hubungan kekerabatannya dalam rumpun bahasa Melayu Polinesia. Forum Arkeologi, 32(2). https://doi.org/10.24832/fa.v32i2.564
Robins, R.H. (2014). General linguistics. 4th Edition. Taylor & Francis Group.
Ross, M. (2017). “Linguistic evidence for prehistory: Oceanic examples.” In Issues in Austronesian Historical Linguistics., edited by Hsiu-chuan Liao. Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society Special Publication No. 1. University of Hawaii Press.
Ross, M., & Greenhill, S. J. (2024). Methods in Malayo-Polynesian comparative-historical linguistics. In A. Adelaar & A. Schapper (Eds.), Malayo-Polynesian languages of Southeast Asia (pp. 25-34). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198807353.003.0003
Ross, M. D and Mark Durie (1996). Introduction, in Mark Durie and Malcolm D Ross (eds.), The comparative method reviewed: Irregularity and regularity in linguistic change. New York: Oxford University Press, 3–38.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195066074.003.0001
Sarwadi, G., et.al. (2019). Variasi leksikal Bahasa Sasak Dialek Kuto-Kute di Kabupaten Lombok Utara. Jurnal Kata: Penelitian tentang Ilmu Bahasa dan Sastra, 3 (1), 155-169.
Smith, A. D. (2017). The Western Malayo-Polynesian problem. Oceanic Linguistics, 56(2), 435-490.
Stephen J. L. (1990). The regularity of sound change: A Semitistic perspective. 1990. In Philip Baldi Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology. Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York.
Sudaryanto. (2015). Metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Sugianto & Hasby. 2023. The language variations used among speakers of Sasak Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara. JOLLT Journal of Languages and Language Teaching, 11(1).
Sumarlam et.al. (2017). Reflexes of Proto-Austronesia into Buru Language: Preliminary Step of Testing Collins Hypothesis (1981). Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Languages and Arts.
Thoir, N. (1983). Struktur Bahasa Sasak umum. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia.
Yondri, L. (2020). Menguak jejak tinggalan prasejarah di Kawasan Kabupaten Subang. Prosiding Balai Arkeologi Jawa Barat.
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Jun 23, 2025
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Burhanuddin, B., Melani, B. Z., & Saharudin, S. (2025). Austronesian’s Traces in Sasak: Historical Linguistics Study. Jurnal Arbitrer, 12(2), 238–258. https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.2.238-258.2025
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