Reading Level Distribution in School Districts: Implications for Curriculum Enhancements
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Abstract
Reading is a core component of standardized tests and a cornerstone of academic success, prompting schools in the basic education to invest in reading programs for elementary learners. This study investigates the reading levels of Grades 4 to 6 students, analyzes reading performance trends across grade levels and school districts, and proposes curriculum enhancements in school districts in Cebu City, Philippines. Utilizing a cross-sectional study design, reading proficiency data were analyzed using frequency distribution and chi-square tests. Results indicate an overall improvement in reading levels, with a higher percentage of students moving from Frustration to Instructional reading levels, particularly in the North District. However, ongoing difficulties exist in the South District, where many higher-grade students remain at the Frustration level. Gender analysis reveals that females tend to demonstrate higher reading levels compared to males, with the difference becoming more pronounced from Grade 5 onward. Targeted curriculum enhancements like reading intervention programs in Grade 4 may support struggling readers, while teachers may benefit from professional development on culturally responsive reading strategies to improve reading instruction and promote literacy outcomes across district schools.
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Abid, N., Aslam, S., Alghamdi, A. A., & Kumar, T. (2023). Relationships among students’ reading habits, study skills, and academic achievement in English at the secondary level. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1020269
Bacus, R. , & Alda, R. (2023). English language exposure and literacy rate toward language proficiency: A cross-country analysis. World Journal of English Language, 13(5), 213. https://doi.org/10.5430/wjel.v13n5p213
Baharum, N. , Ismail, L., & Shauki, N. (2024). Beliefs on second language learning among pre-service teachers in a public university in Malaysia. Journal of Digital Sociohumanities, 1(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.25077/jds.1.1.1-11.2024
Balnig, B., Guibone, L. , & Alda, R. (2024). The relationship between reading fluency components and comprehension skills: A descriptive correlational study. Journal of Education Naresuan University, 26(2), 1-12. https://so06.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/edujournal_nu/article/view/263290
Bauer, T. (2022). The effect of explicit vocabulary instruction on elementary students’ vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension: An action research study. University of South Carolina. https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/6623
Boerma, I. , Mol, S. , & Jolles, J. (2015). Teacher perceptions affect boys’ and girls’ reading motivation differently. Reading Psychology, 37(4), 547–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2015.1072608
Bouchamma, Y., Poulin, V., & Ruel, C. (2014). Impact of reading strategy use on girls’ and boys’ achievement. Reading Psychology, 35(4), 312–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2012.724043
Caliskan, E., & Ulas, A. (2022). The effect of parent-involved reading activities on primary school students’ reading comprehension skills, reading motivation, and attitudes towards reading. International Journal of Elementary Education, 14(4). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1351656.pdf
Chiu, M. (2018). Contextual influences on girls’ and boys’ motivation and reading achievement: Family, schoolmates, and country. In Literacy studies (pp. 49–63). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75948-7_3
Connor, C. , Morrison, F., Fishman, B., Crowe, E., Al Otaiba, S., & Schatschneider, C. (2013). A longitudinal cluster-randomized controlled study on the accumulating effects of individualized literacy instruction on students’ reading from first through third grade. Psychological Science, 24(8), 1408–1419. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612472204
Conradi, K., Amendum, S. J., & Liebfreund, M. D. (2015). Explaining variance in comprehension for students in a high-poverty setting. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 32(5), 427–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2014.994251
Dhakal, B. (2024). Exploring and addressing factors contributing to reading proficiency differences: Teachers’ perspectives. Journal of NELTA, 29(1), 113–125. https://doi.org/10.3126/nelta.v29i1.72639
Gementiza, J. I., & Alda, R. (2023). Reading instruction in multigrade classes: A narrative inquiry. Interdisciplinary Research Review, 18(3), 41–48. https://ph02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jtir/article/view/248620
Griva, E., Alevriadou, A., & Semoglou, K. (2012). Reading preferences and strategies employed by primary school students: Gender, socio-cognitive and citizenship issues. International Education Studies, 5(2), 24. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v5n2p24
Gunn, J. (2018, September 18). The serious, lifelong impacts of illiteracy. ResilientEducator.com. https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/illiteracy-impacts/
Ho, E. S. C., & Lau, K. (2018). Reading engagement and reading literacy performance: Effective policy and practices at home and in school. Journal of Research in Reading, 41(4), 657–679. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12246
Howie, S., Van Staden, S., Tshele, M., Dowse, C., & Zimmerman, L. (2012). South African children’s reading literacy achievement summary report. Centre for Evaluation and Assessment.
Husin, N., & Rawian, R. (2025). Receptive and productive collocational knowledge, vocabulary size, motivation, and self-efficacy in ESL reading comprehension. Jurnal Arbitrer, 12(2), 138–152. https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.2.138-152.2025
Jenina, M., Cai, Y., & King, R. (2019). Why do girls do better in reading than boys? How parental emotional contagion explains gender differences in reading achievement. Psychology in the Schools, 57(2), 310–319. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22330
Kennedy, A., & Strietholt, R. (2023). School closure policies and student reading achievement: Evidence across countries. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 35(4), 475–501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-023-09415-4
Kobina, C. (2018). English reading proficiency and academic performance among lower primary school children in Ghana. SAGE Open. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2158244018797019
Lang, L., Torgesen, J., Vogel, W., Chanter, C., Lefsky, E., & Petscher, Y. (2009). Exploring the relative effectiveness of reading interventions for high school students. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2(2), 149–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345740802641535
Li, H., & Gan, Z. (2022). Reading motivation, self-regulated reading strategies and English vocabulary knowledge: Which most predicted students’ English reading comprehension? Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1041870
Logan, S., & Johnston, R. (2010). Investigating gender differences in reading. Educational Review, 62(2), 175–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911003637006
Mancilla-Martinez, J. (2020). Understanding and supporting literacy development among English learners: A deep dive into the role of language comprehension. AERA Open. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2332858420912198
Mehra, A. (2024). The five blocks of the science of reading. Mrs Wordsmith. https://mrswordsmith.com/blogs/research/the-five-building-blocks-of-reading
Miranda, L. (2019). Project BASA (Building and Advancing Students’ Ability in Reading). Ascendens Asia Journal of Multidisciplinary Research Abstracts, 3(2G).
Miyamoto, A., Murayama, K., & Lechner, C. M. (2020). The developmental trajectory of intrinsic reading motivation: Measurement invariance, group variations, and implications for reading proficiency. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 63, Article 101921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101921
Mohammad, Z. A., & Hasbi, M. (2021). Reading difficulties in English as a second language in grade five at a Saint Patrick’s High School for Boys, Hyderabad- India. Arab World English Journal, 12(4), 521–535. https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol12no4.34
Rafanan, J. A., & Raymundo. (2024). Impact of customized reading remediation and intervention in reading fluency of high school students. International Journal of Linguistics Literature & Translation, 7(7), 66–74. https://doi.org/10.32996/ijllt.2024.7.7.8
Romeo, R. R., Uchida, L., & Christodoulou, J. A. (2022). Socioeconomic status and reading outcomes: Neurobiological and behavioral correlates. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2022(179), 57–70. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20475
Setia, M. (2016). Methodology series module 3: Cross-sectional studies. Indian Journal of Dermatology, 61(3), 261. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.182410
Shanahan, T., Callison, K., Carriere, C., Duke, N. K., Pearson, P. D., Schatschneider, C., & Torgesen, J. K. (2010). Improving reading comprehension in kindergarten through 3rd grade: A practice guide (NCEE 2010-4038). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED512029.pdf
Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2017). Disciplinary literacy: Just the FAQs. Educational Leadership, 74(5), 18–22. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315115748_Disciplinary_Literacy_Just_the_FAQs
Spaull, N. (2017). A preliminary analysis of SACMEQ III South Africa (Stellenbosch Economic Working Papers: 11/11). Department of Economics and the Bureau for Economic Research, Stellenbosch.
Sumabong, J., Abellana, J., Bugnos, M. M., & Alda, R. (2023). Beyond the classroom: A parent’s journey as a teacher of reading. Journal of Creative Practices in Language Learning and Teaching, 11(2), 121-134. https://doi.org/10.24191/cplt.v11i2.22384
Taylor, E. K., Abdurokhmonova, G., & Romeo, R. R. (2023). Socioeconomic status and reading development: Moving from “deficit” to “adaptation” in neurobiological models of experience‐dependent learning. Mind, Brain, and Education, 17(4), 324–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12351
Vaughn, S., Roberts, G., Klingner, J. K., Swanson, E. A., Boardman, A., Stillman-Spisak, S. J., Mohammed, S. S., & Leroux, A. J. (2013). Collaborative strategic reading: Findings from experienced implementers. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 6(2), 137–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2012.741661
Vaughn, S., Roberts, G. J., Miciak, J., Taylor, P., & Fletcher, J. M. (2019). Efficacy of a word- and text-based intervention for students with significant reading difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 52(1), 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219418775113
Vazquez-Lopez, V., & Huerta-Manzanilla, E. L. (2021). Factors related with underperformance in reading proficiency, the case of the Programme for International Student Assessment 2018. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 11(3), 813–828. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe11030059
Yulmiati, N., Purba, A., Harisnawati, N., Akhyaruddin, N., Adrias, N., Nazhifah, N., & Yulastri, W. (2025). Constructing the validity of a reading assessment model for 21st century education with a focus on self-directed learning. Jurnal Arbitrer, 12(1), 96–113. https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.1.96-113.2025
Bacus, R. , & Alda, R. (2023). English language exposure and literacy rate toward language proficiency: A cross-country analysis. World Journal of English Language, 13(5), 213. https://doi.org/10.5430/wjel.v13n5p213
Baharum, N. , Ismail, L., & Shauki, N. (2024). Beliefs on second language learning among pre-service teachers in a public university in Malaysia. Journal of Digital Sociohumanities, 1(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.25077/jds.1.1.1-11.2024
Balnig, B., Guibone, L. , & Alda, R. (2024). The relationship between reading fluency components and comprehension skills: A descriptive correlational study. Journal of Education Naresuan University, 26(2), 1-12. https://so06.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/edujournal_nu/article/view/263290
Bauer, T. (2022). The effect of explicit vocabulary instruction on elementary students’ vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension: An action research study. University of South Carolina. https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/6623
Boerma, I. , Mol, S. , & Jolles, J. (2015). Teacher perceptions affect boys’ and girls’ reading motivation differently. Reading Psychology, 37(4), 547–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2015.1072608
Bouchamma, Y., Poulin, V., & Ruel, C. (2014). Impact of reading strategy use on girls’ and boys’ achievement. Reading Psychology, 35(4), 312–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2012.724043
Caliskan, E., & Ulas, A. (2022). The effect of parent-involved reading activities on primary school students’ reading comprehension skills, reading motivation, and attitudes towards reading. International Journal of Elementary Education, 14(4). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1351656.pdf
Chiu, M. (2018). Contextual influences on girls’ and boys’ motivation and reading achievement: Family, schoolmates, and country. In Literacy studies (pp. 49–63). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75948-7_3
Connor, C. , Morrison, F., Fishman, B., Crowe, E., Al Otaiba, S., & Schatschneider, C. (2013). A longitudinal cluster-randomized controlled study on the accumulating effects of individualized literacy instruction on students’ reading from first through third grade. Psychological Science, 24(8), 1408–1419. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612472204
Conradi, K., Amendum, S. J., & Liebfreund, M. D. (2015). Explaining variance in comprehension for students in a high-poverty setting. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 32(5), 427–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2014.994251
Dhakal, B. (2024). Exploring and addressing factors contributing to reading proficiency differences: Teachers’ perspectives. Journal of NELTA, 29(1), 113–125. https://doi.org/10.3126/nelta.v29i1.72639
Gementiza, J. I., & Alda, R. (2023). Reading instruction in multigrade classes: A narrative inquiry. Interdisciplinary Research Review, 18(3), 41–48. https://ph02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jtir/article/view/248620
Griva, E., Alevriadou, A., & Semoglou, K. (2012). Reading preferences and strategies employed by primary school students: Gender, socio-cognitive and citizenship issues. International Education Studies, 5(2), 24. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v5n2p24
Gunn, J. (2018, September 18). The serious, lifelong impacts of illiteracy. ResilientEducator.com. https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/illiteracy-impacts/
Ho, E. S. C., & Lau, K. (2018). Reading engagement and reading literacy performance: Effective policy and practices at home and in school. Journal of Research in Reading, 41(4), 657–679. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12246
Howie, S., Van Staden, S., Tshele, M., Dowse, C., & Zimmerman, L. (2012). South African children’s reading literacy achievement summary report. Centre for Evaluation and Assessment.
Husin, N., & Rawian, R. (2025). Receptive and productive collocational knowledge, vocabulary size, motivation, and self-efficacy in ESL reading comprehension. Jurnal Arbitrer, 12(2), 138–152. https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.2.138-152.2025
Jenina, M., Cai, Y., & King, R. (2019). Why do girls do better in reading than boys? How parental emotional contagion explains gender differences in reading achievement. Psychology in the Schools, 57(2), 310–319. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22330
Kennedy, A., & Strietholt, R. (2023). School closure policies and student reading achievement: Evidence across countries. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 35(4), 475–501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-023-09415-4
Kobina, C. (2018). English reading proficiency and academic performance among lower primary school children in Ghana. SAGE Open. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2158244018797019
Lang, L., Torgesen, J., Vogel, W., Chanter, C., Lefsky, E., & Petscher, Y. (2009). Exploring the relative effectiveness of reading interventions for high school students. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2(2), 149–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345740802641535
Li, H., & Gan, Z. (2022). Reading motivation, self-regulated reading strategies and English vocabulary knowledge: Which most predicted students’ English reading comprehension? Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1041870
Logan, S., & Johnston, R. (2010). Investigating gender differences in reading. Educational Review, 62(2), 175–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911003637006
Mancilla-Martinez, J. (2020). Understanding and supporting literacy development among English learners: A deep dive into the role of language comprehension. AERA Open. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2332858420912198
Mehra, A. (2024). The five blocks of the science of reading. Mrs Wordsmith. https://mrswordsmith.com/blogs/research/the-five-building-blocks-of-reading
Miranda, L. (2019). Project BASA (Building and Advancing Students’ Ability in Reading). Ascendens Asia Journal of Multidisciplinary Research Abstracts, 3(2G).
Miyamoto, A., Murayama, K., & Lechner, C. M. (2020). The developmental trajectory of intrinsic reading motivation: Measurement invariance, group variations, and implications for reading proficiency. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 63, Article 101921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101921
Mohammad, Z. A., & Hasbi, M. (2021). Reading difficulties in English as a second language in grade five at a Saint Patrick’s High School for Boys, Hyderabad- India. Arab World English Journal, 12(4), 521–535. https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol12no4.34
Rafanan, J. A., & Raymundo. (2024). Impact of customized reading remediation and intervention in reading fluency of high school students. International Journal of Linguistics Literature & Translation, 7(7), 66–74. https://doi.org/10.32996/ijllt.2024.7.7.8
Romeo, R. R., Uchida, L., & Christodoulou, J. A. (2022). Socioeconomic status and reading outcomes: Neurobiological and behavioral correlates. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2022(179), 57–70. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20475
Setia, M. (2016). Methodology series module 3: Cross-sectional studies. Indian Journal of Dermatology, 61(3), 261. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.182410
Shanahan, T., Callison, K., Carriere, C., Duke, N. K., Pearson, P. D., Schatschneider, C., & Torgesen, J. K. (2010). Improving reading comprehension in kindergarten through 3rd grade: A practice guide (NCEE 2010-4038). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED512029.pdf
Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2017). Disciplinary literacy: Just the FAQs. Educational Leadership, 74(5), 18–22. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315115748_Disciplinary_Literacy_Just_the_FAQs
Spaull, N. (2017). A preliminary analysis of SACMEQ III South Africa (Stellenbosch Economic Working Papers: 11/11). Department of Economics and the Bureau for Economic Research, Stellenbosch.
Sumabong, J., Abellana, J., Bugnos, M. M., & Alda, R. (2023). Beyond the classroom: A parent’s journey as a teacher of reading. Journal of Creative Practices in Language Learning and Teaching, 11(2), 121-134. https://doi.org/10.24191/cplt.v11i2.22384
Taylor, E. K., Abdurokhmonova, G., & Romeo, R. R. (2023). Socioeconomic status and reading development: Moving from “deficit” to “adaptation” in neurobiological models of experience‐dependent learning. Mind, Brain, and Education, 17(4), 324–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12351
Vaughn, S., Roberts, G., Klingner, J. K., Swanson, E. A., Boardman, A., Stillman-Spisak, S. J., Mohammed, S. S., & Leroux, A. J. (2013). Collaborative strategic reading: Findings from experienced implementers. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 6(2), 137–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2012.741661
Vaughn, S., Roberts, G. J., Miciak, J., Taylor, P., & Fletcher, J. M. (2019). Efficacy of a word- and text-based intervention for students with significant reading difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 52(1), 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219418775113
Vazquez-Lopez, V., & Huerta-Manzanilla, E. L. (2021). Factors related with underperformance in reading proficiency, the case of the Programme for International Student Assessment 2018. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 11(3), 813–828. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe11030059
Yulmiati, N., Purba, A., Harisnawati, N., Akhyaruddin, N., Adrias, N., Nazhifah, N., & Yulastri, W. (2025). Constructing the validity of a reading assessment model for 21st century education with a focus on self-directed learning. Jurnal Arbitrer, 12(1), 96–113. https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.1.96-113.2025
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Sep 30, 2025
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Bacus, R., Alda, R., Balo, V. T., & Arandia, N. (2025). Reading Level Distribution in School Districts: Implications for Curriculum Enhancements. Jurnal Arbitrer, 12(3), 350–367. https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.3.350-367.2025
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