The Accuracy of English Grammatical Morpheme Orders among Chinese EFL Learners and Instructor Interventions
Main Article Content
Keywords
EFL, morpheme order, factors, interventions, China
Abstract
In the domain of first and second language (L1/L2) acquisition, Morpheme Order Studies (MOS) encapsulate a body of influential research. This study specifically aimed to (1) assess the accuracy of nine grammatical morphemes used by Chinese learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in their compositions, (2) investigate the factors affecting the accurate use of these morphemes among Chinese EFL learners, and (3) explore the interventions implemented by their instructors to assist the Chinese EFL learners in accurately using these intricate grammatical constructs. Employing the Target-Like Use methodology, the data were collected from the essays of 108 high school learners in Kunming, Yunnan, China, to ascertain the order of their accuracy in using these morphemes. Subsequently, a semi-structured interview was conducted with five EFL instructors and 15 tested learners to delve into the factors influencing their proficiency with specific complex morphemes and the application of instructional interventions used by the instructors. The findings of the study revealed that the learners did not consistently adhere to Krashen’s hypothesized natural order; rather, they exhibited idiosyncratic acquisition patterns. Particularly, it was noteworthy that there was a relatively low accuracy observed in the usage of certain morphemes, such as irregular past and 3rd person singular –s (features absent in the learners’ native language). Furthermore, factors contributing to the diminished accuracy of these specific morphemes include the learners’ mother tongue interference in their use of these morphemes, syntactic and semantic complexities, motivational factors, environmental factors, and limited output of specific morphemes. Additionally, the research uncovered various interventions such as peer review, storytelling, and incorporating songs employed by the EFL instructors to assist the Chinese EFL learners in using these challenging grammatical morphemes correctly. This study provides valuable insights for EFL students, instructors, curriculum developers, and textbook editors.
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References
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Bailey, N., Madden, C., & Krashen, S. D. (1974). Is there a ‘natural sequence’ in adult second language learning?. Language learning, 24(2), 235-243.
Brown, R. (1973). A first language: The early stages. Harvard University Press.
Buzan, T., & Buzan, B. (2006). The mind map book. Pearson Education.
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching languages to young learners. Cambridge University Press.
Chan, A. Y. (2004). Syntactic transfer: Evidence from the interlanguage of Hong Kong Chinese ESL learners. The Modern Language Journal, 88(1), 56-74.
Cheng, Y., & Lee, B. (2020). A study of English morpheme acquisition order by Chinese and Korean EFL learners. The Linguistic Association of Korea Journal, 28(1), 79-97.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Cook, V. (2001). Second language learning and language teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.
Corder, S. P. (1967). The significance of learner’s errors. IRAL: International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 5(4), 161-170.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications.
De Guerrero, M. C. G., & Villamil, O. S. (2000). Activating the ZPD: Mutual scaffolding in L2 peer revision. The Modern Language Journal, 84, 51–68.
De Villiers, J. G., & De Villiers, P. A. (1973). A cross-sectional study of the acquisition of grammatical morphemes in child speech. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 2(3), 267-278.
Dorathy, A. A., & Mahalakshmi, S. N. (2011). Second language acquisition through task-based approach–role-play in English language teaching. English for Specific Purposes World, 11(33), 1-7.
Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (1998). Pedagogical choices in focus on form. In Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (Ed). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp.197-261). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dulay, H. C., & Burt, M. K. (1973). Should we teach children syntax?. Language Learning, 23(2), 245-258.
Dulay, H. C., & Burt, M. K. (1974). Natural sequences in child second language acquisition 1. Language Learning, 24(1), 37-53.
Ehrman, M. E. (1996). Understanding second language learning difficulties. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Fathman, A. (1975). Language background, age and the order of acquisition of English structures. On TESOL, 75, 33-43.
Fathman, A. (1975). The relationship between age and second language productive ability. Language Learning, 25(2), 245-253.
Gass, S. M., Behney, J., & Plonsky, L. (2013). Looking at inter-language processing. In S. M. Gass, & L. Plonsky (Eds.), Second language acquisition: An introductory course (pp. 252-292). New York: Routledge.
Ghonchepour, M., Pakzadmoghaddam, M., Kalantari Khandani, E., & Farrokhi Barfe, M. H. (2020). Accuracy order of grammatical morphemes in Persian EFL learners: Evidence for and against UG. Journal of English Language Pedagogy and Practice, 12(25), 53-78.
Goldschneider, J. M., & DeKeyser, R. M. (2001). Explaining the “natural order of L2 morpheme acquisition” in English: A meta-analysis of multiple determinants. Language Learning, 51(1), 1-50.
Hakuta, K. (1976). A case study of a Japanese child learning English as a second language 1, 2. Language Learning, 26(2), 321-351.
Hanania, E. A., & Gradman, H. L. (1977). Acquisition of English structures: A case study of an adult native speaker of Arabic in an English‐speaking environment. Language Learning, 27(1), 75-91.
Hansen, J., & Liu, J. (2005). Guiding principles for effective peer response. ELT Journal, 59, 31–38.
Hassanzade, M., & Narafshan, M. H. (2016). A study on input quality and second language grammar achievement in young children. International Journal of English Language Teaching, 4(2), 70-82.
Hsieh, F. T. (2009, July). The acquisition of English agreement/tense morphology and copula be by L1-Chinese-speaking learners. In Paper from Lancaster University Postgraduate Conference in Linguistics and Language Teaching Lancaster (pp. 45-59).
Isbell, R., Sobol, J., Lindauer, L., & Lowrance, A. (2004). The effects of storytelling and story reading on the oral language complexity and story comprehension of young children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32, 157-163.
Izumi, E., & Isahara, H. (2004). Investigation into language learners’ acquisition order based on an error analysis of a learner corpus. In IWLeL 2004: An interactive workshop on language e-learning (pp. 63-71). Waseda University.
Kessler, C., & Idar, I. (1979). Acquisition of. English by a Vietnamese mother and child. Working. Papers on Bilingualism, 18, 66-79.
Khor, S. Y. (2012). A corpus-based study in morpheme acquisition order of young learners of English: A comparison of Swedish students in grade 6 and grade 7. Ph.D. Thesis, Uppsala University, Sweden.
Krashen, S. (1977). The monitor model for adult second language performance. In M. Burt, H. Dulay, & M. Finocchiaro (Eds.), Viewpoints on English as a second language (pp. 152–161). New York: Regents.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London: Longman.
Krashen, S., Houck, N., Giunchi, P., Bode, S., Birnbaum, R., & Strei, G. (1977). Difficulty order for grammatical morphemes for adult 2nd language performers using free speech. TESOL Quarterly, 11(3), 338-341.
Kuczaj II, S. A. (1977). The acquisition of regular and irregular past tense forms. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16(5), 589-600.
Larsen‐Freeman, D. E. (1976). An explanation for the morpheme acquisition order of second language learners. Language Learning, 26(1), 125-134.
Liu, F., & Ding, Y. (2009). Role-play in English language teaching. Asian Social Science, 5(10), 140-143.
Lo, R., & Li, H. C. (1998). Songs enhance learner involvement. English Teaching FORUM, 36(3), 8-11.
Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie, & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413-468). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.
Lucarevschi, C. R. (2016). The role of storytelling on language learning: A literature review. Working Papers of the Linguistics Circle, 26(1), 24-44.
Luk, Z. P. S., & Shirai, Y. (2009). Is the acquisition order of grammatical morphemes impervious to L1 knowledge? Evidence from the acquisition of plural‐s, articles, and possessive -s. Language Learning, 59(4), 721-754.
Lundstrom, K., & Baker, W. (2009). To give is better than to receive: The benefits of peer review to the reviewer’s own writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 18(1), 30-43.
Mangelsdorf, K. (1992). Peer reviews in the ESL composition classroom: What do the students think? ELT Journal, 46, 274–284.
McBride-Chang, C., Wagner, R. K., Muse, A., Chow, B.W. Y., & Shu, H. U. A. (2005). The role of morphological awareness in children’s vocabulary acquisition in English. Applied Psycholinguistics, 26(3), 415-435.
McDonough, S. H. (1986). Psychology in foreign language teaching. London: George Allen & Unwin.
Mitchell, R., & Myles, F. (2004). Second language learning theories (2nd ed.). Hodder Arnold.
Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2019). Second language learning theories. Routledge.
Murakami, A., & Alexopoulou, T. (2016). L1 influence on the acquisition order of English grammatical morphemes: A learner corpus study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(3), 365-401.
Murakami, A. (2013). Cross-linguistic influence on the accuracy order of L2 English grammatical morphemes. In S. Granger, G. Gilquin, & F. Meunier (Eds.), Twenty years of learner corpus research: Looking back, moving ahead (pp. 325-334). Presses Universitaires de Louvain.
O’ Donnell, M. (2008, April). The UAM CorpusTool: Software for corpus annotation and exploration. In Proceedings of the XXVI Congreso de AESLA (Vol. 3, p. 5). Spain: Almeria.
Pica, T. (1983). Adult acquisition of English as a second language under different conditions of exposure. Language Learning, 33(4), 465-497.
Pica, T. (1983). Methods of morpheme quantification: Their effect on the interpretation of second language data. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 6(1), 69-78.
Pica, T. (1994). What does it reveal about second-language learning conditions, processes, and outcomes. Language Learning 44, 493–527.
Polat, M. (2017). Teachers’ attitudes towards teaching English grammar: A scale development study. International Journal of Instruction, 10(4), 379-398.
Rao, Z. (2007). Training in brainstorming and developing writing skills. ELT Journal, 61(2), 100-106.
Richards J. (1990). New trends in the teaching of writing in ESL/ EFL. In Wang Z. (Ed.), ELT in China. Papers presented at the International Symposium on Teaching English in the Chinese Context. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Beijing.
Saricoban, A., & Metin, E. (2000). Songs, verse and games for teaching grammar. The Internet TESL Journal, 6(10), 1-7.
Schenck, A. D., & Choi, W. (2013). Unlocking the secrets of morphosyntactic development by examining acquisition order disparities in an EFL context. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics, 3(1), 47-57.
Seog, D. S. Y. (2015). Accuracy order of grammatical morphemes of Korean EFL learners: disparities among the same L1 groups. Linguistic Research, 32, 151-171.
Shin, S. J., & Milroy, L. (1999). Bilingual language acquisition by Korean schoolchildren in New York City. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2(2), 147-167.
Slobin, D. I. (1996). From ‘thought and language’ to ‘thinking for speaking’. In J. J. Gumperz & S. C. Levinson. (Eds.), Rethinking linguistic relativity (pp. 70-96). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. Input in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 165-179.
Swain, M. (1993). The output hypothesis: Just speaking and writing aren’t enough. Canadian Modern Language Review 50: 158–164.
Thornbury, S. (1997) Grammar, power and bottled water. IATEFL Newsletter, 140, 19-20.
Unsworth, S. (2016). Quantity and quality of language input in bilingual language development.
Wang, W. (2022). Quality input as a key factor in second language acquisition. In 2022 5th International Conference on Humanities Education and Social Sciences (ICHESS 2022) (pp. 2642-2653). Atlantis Press.
Williams, M., & Burden, R. L. (1997). Psychology for language teachers: A social constructivist approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Alinte, C. (2013). Teaching grammar through music. The Journal of Linguistic and Intercultural Education, 6, 7-27.
Bailey, N., Madden, C., & Krashen, S. D. (1974). Is there a ‘natural sequence’ in adult second language learning?. Language learning, 24(2), 235-243.
Brown, R. (1973). A first language: The early stages. Harvard University Press.
Buzan, T., & Buzan, B. (2006). The mind map book. Pearson Education.
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching languages to young learners. Cambridge University Press.
Chan, A. Y. (2004). Syntactic transfer: Evidence from the interlanguage of Hong Kong Chinese ESL learners. The Modern Language Journal, 88(1), 56-74.
Cheng, Y., & Lee, B. (2020). A study of English morpheme acquisition order by Chinese and Korean EFL learners. The Linguistic Association of Korea Journal, 28(1), 79-97.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Cook, V. (2001). Second language learning and language teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.
Corder, S. P. (1967). The significance of learner’s errors. IRAL: International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 5(4), 161-170.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications.
De Guerrero, M. C. G., & Villamil, O. S. (2000). Activating the ZPD: Mutual scaffolding in L2 peer revision. The Modern Language Journal, 84, 51–68.
De Villiers, J. G., & De Villiers, P. A. (1973). A cross-sectional study of the acquisition of grammatical morphemes in child speech. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 2(3), 267-278.
Dorathy, A. A., & Mahalakshmi, S. N. (2011). Second language acquisition through task-based approach–role-play in English language teaching. English for Specific Purposes World, 11(33), 1-7.
Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (1998). Pedagogical choices in focus on form. In Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (Ed). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp.197-261). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dulay, H. C., & Burt, M. K. (1973). Should we teach children syntax?. Language Learning, 23(2), 245-258.
Dulay, H. C., & Burt, M. K. (1974). Natural sequences in child second language acquisition 1. Language Learning, 24(1), 37-53.
Ehrman, M. E. (1996). Understanding second language learning difficulties. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Fathman, A. (1975). Language background, age and the order of acquisition of English structures. On TESOL, 75, 33-43.
Fathman, A. (1975). The relationship between age and second language productive ability. Language Learning, 25(2), 245-253.
Gass, S. M., Behney, J., & Plonsky, L. (2013). Looking at inter-language processing. In S. M. Gass, & L. Plonsky (Eds.), Second language acquisition: An introductory course (pp. 252-292). New York: Routledge.
Ghonchepour, M., Pakzadmoghaddam, M., Kalantari Khandani, E., & Farrokhi Barfe, M. H. (2020). Accuracy order of grammatical morphemes in Persian EFL learners: Evidence for and against UG. Journal of English Language Pedagogy and Practice, 12(25), 53-78.
Goldschneider, J. M., & DeKeyser, R. M. (2001). Explaining the “natural order of L2 morpheme acquisition” in English: A meta-analysis of multiple determinants. Language Learning, 51(1), 1-50.
Hakuta, K. (1976). A case study of a Japanese child learning English as a second language 1, 2. Language Learning, 26(2), 321-351.
Hanania, E. A., & Gradman, H. L. (1977). Acquisition of English structures: A case study of an adult native speaker of Arabic in an English‐speaking environment. Language Learning, 27(1), 75-91.
Hansen, J., & Liu, J. (2005). Guiding principles for effective peer response. ELT Journal, 59, 31–38.
Hassanzade, M., & Narafshan, M. H. (2016). A study on input quality and second language grammar achievement in young children. International Journal of English Language Teaching, 4(2), 70-82.
Hsieh, F. T. (2009, July). The acquisition of English agreement/tense morphology and copula be by L1-Chinese-speaking learners. In Paper from Lancaster University Postgraduate Conference in Linguistics and Language Teaching Lancaster (pp. 45-59).
Isbell, R., Sobol, J., Lindauer, L., & Lowrance, A. (2004). The effects of storytelling and story reading on the oral language complexity and story comprehension of young children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32, 157-163.
Izumi, E., & Isahara, H. (2004). Investigation into language learners’ acquisition order based on an error analysis of a learner corpus. In IWLeL 2004: An interactive workshop on language e-learning (pp. 63-71). Waseda University.
Kessler, C., & Idar, I. (1979). Acquisition of. English by a Vietnamese mother and child. Working. Papers on Bilingualism, 18, 66-79.
Khor, S. Y. (2012). A corpus-based study in morpheme acquisition order of young learners of English: A comparison of Swedish students in grade 6 and grade 7. Ph.D. Thesis, Uppsala University, Sweden.
Krashen, S. (1977). The monitor model for adult second language performance. In M. Burt, H. Dulay, & M. Finocchiaro (Eds.), Viewpoints on English as a second language (pp. 152–161). New York: Regents.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London: Longman.
Krashen, S., Houck, N., Giunchi, P., Bode, S., Birnbaum, R., & Strei, G. (1977). Difficulty order for grammatical morphemes for adult 2nd language performers using free speech. TESOL Quarterly, 11(3), 338-341.
Kuczaj II, S. A. (1977). The acquisition of regular and irregular past tense forms. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16(5), 589-600.
Larsen‐Freeman, D. E. (1976). An explanation for the morpheme acquisition order of second language learners. Language Learning, 26(1), 125-134.
Liu, F., & Ding, Y. (2009). Role-play in English language teaching. Asian Social Science, 5(10), 140-143.
Lo, R., & Li, H. C. (1998). Songs enhance learner involvement. English Teaching FORUM, 36(3), 8-11.
Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie, & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413-468). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.
Lucarevschi, C. R. (2016). The role of storytelling on language learning: A literature review. Working Papers of the Linguistics Circle, 26(1), 24-44.
Luk, Z. P. S., & Shirai, Y. (2009). Is the acquisition order of grammatical morphemes impervious to L1 knowledge? Evidence from the acquisition of plural‐s, articles, and possessive -s. Language Learning, 59(4), 721-754.
Lundstrom, K., & Baker, W. (2009). To give is better than to receive: The benefits of peer review to the reviewer’s own writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 18(1), 30-43.
Mangelsdorf, K. (1992). Peer reviews in the ESL composition classroom: What do the students think? ELT Journal, 46, 274–284.
McBride-Chang, C., Wagner, R. K., Muse, A., Chow, B.W. Y., & Shu, H. U. A. (2005). The role of morphological awareness in children’s vocabulary acquisition in English. Applied Psycholinguistics, 26(3), 415-435.
McDonough, S. H. (1986). Psychology in foreign language teaching. London: George Allen & Unwin.
Mitchell, R., & Myles, F. (2004). Second language learning theories (2nd ed.). Hodder Arnold.
Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2019). Second language learning theories. Routledge.
Murakami, A., & Alexopoulou, T. (2016). L1 influence on the acquisition order of English grammatical morphemes: A learner corpus study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(3), 365-401.
Murakami, A. (2013). Cross-linguistic influence on the accuracy order of L2 English grammatical morphemes. In S. Granger, G. Gilquin, & F. Meunier (Eds.), Twenty years of learner corpus research: Looking back, moving ahead (pp. 325-334). Presses Universitaires de Louvain.
O’ Donnell, M. (2008, April). The UAM CorpusTool: Software for corpus annotation and exploration. In Proceedings of the XXVI Congreso de AESLA (Vol. 3, p. 5). Spain: Almeria.
Pica, T. (1983). Adult acquisition of English as a second language under different conditions of exposure. Language Learning, 33(4), 465-497.
Pica, T. (1983). Methods of morpheme quantification: Their effect on the interpretation of second language data. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 6(1), 69-78.
Pica, T. (1994). What does it reveal about second-language learning conditions, processes, and outcomes. Language Learning 44, 493–527.
Polat, M. (2017). Teachers’ attitudes towards teaching English grammar: A scale development study. International Journal of Instruction, 10(4), 379-398.
Rao, Z. (2007). Training in brainstorming and developing writing skills. ELT Journal, 61(2), 100-106.
Richards J. (1990). New trends in the teaching of writing in ESL/ EFL. In Wang Z. (Ed.), ELT in China. Papers presented at the International Symposium on Teaching English in the Chinese Context. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Beijing.
Saricoban, A., & Metin, E. (2000). Songs, verse and games for teaching grammar. The Internet TESL Journal, 6(10), 1-7.
Schenck, A. D., & Choi, W. (2013). Unlocking the secrets of morphosyntactic development by examining acquisition order disparities in an EFL context. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics, 3(1), 47-57.
Seog, D. S. Y. (2015). Accuracy order of grammatical morphemes of Korean EFL learners: disparities among the same L1 groups. Linguistic Research, 32, 151-171.
Shin, S. J., & Milroy, L. (1999). Bilingual language acquisition by Korean schoolchildren in New York City. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2(2), 147-167.
Slobin, D. I. (1996). From ‘thought and language’ to ‘thinking for speaking’. In J. J. Gumperz & S. C. Levinson. (Eds.), Rethinking linguistic relativity (pp. 70-96). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. Input in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 165-179.
Swain, M. (1993). The output hypothesis: Just speaking and writing aren’t enough. Canadian Modern Language Review 50: 158–164.
Thornbury, S. (1997) Grammar, power and bottled water. IATEFL Newsletter, 140, 19-20.
Unsworth, S. (2016). Quantity and quality of language input in bilingual language development.
Wang, W. (2022). Quality input as a key factor in second language acquisition. In 2022 5th International Conference on Humanities Education and Social Sciences (ICHESS 2022) (pp. 2642-2653). Atlantis Press.
Williams, M., & Burden, R. L. (1997). Psychology for language teachers: A social constructivist approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Sep 25, 2024
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Wang, X., Lau, S. K., Chew, F. P., Saeed, M. A., & Cao, X. (2024). The Accuracy of English Grammatical Morpheme Orders among Chinese EFL Learners and Instructor Interventions. Jurnal Arbitrer, 11(3), 228–243. https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.228-243.2024
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