EFL Students’ Experience in Distance Learning during COVID-19 from a Multidimensional Transactional Distance Perspective
Main Article Content
Keywords
EFL students, Distance learning, Transactional distance, Emerging learning, COVID-19
Abstract
Emergence learning during the COVID-19 pandemic was a challenging experience for many learners possibly due to the physical and psychological distance. This distance conceptualized as a transactional distance according to Moore’s theory is a critical issue in distance learning. Therefore, the present study attempted to (1) determine Saudi EFL students’ levels of perceived transactional distance in distance learning, (2) measure the impact of the interaction of course structure, dialogue and learner autonomy on Saudi EFL students’ perceived TD in distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic (3) examine the effect of socio-demographic and environmental factors on their perceived transactional distance. By administering a multidimensional electronic (e-)survey to 189 students joining distance learning in a Saudi public university, the study provided evidence of learners’ high levels of perceived dialogue, structure, and autonomy, along with low levels of perceived transactional distance. The correlation analyses showed that dialogue, structure, and learner autonomy significantly and inversely correlate with learners’ transactional distance. The ANOVA analysis revealed that the interaction of dialogue and course structure significantly impacts the perceived transactional distance. Moreover, learners’ levels of perceived transactional distance varied according to their socio-demographic and environmental factors, specifically age, gender, university discipline/major and number of online courses taken by them. The study provides useful pedagogical implications for technology use in sustaining learners’ online learning experiences in terms of dialogue, structure and autonomy and in reducing their perceived transactional distance. Thus, the study is useful for promotion of the distance learning potentials in higher educational institutions.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Achuthan, K., Kolil, V. K., Muthupalani, S., & Raman, R. (2024). Transactional distance theory in distance learning: Past, current, and future research trends. Contemporary Educational Technology, 16(1), 1-28.
Adedoyin, O. B., & Soykan, E. (2020). Covid-19 pandemic and online learning: the challenges and opportunities. Interactive Learning Environments, 1-13.
Al-Mawee, W., Kwayu, K. M., & Gharaibeh, T. (2021). Student’s perspective on distance learning during COVID-19 pandemic: A case study of Western Michigan University, United States. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 2(100080), 1-3.
Anderson, T., & Dron, J. (2011). Three generations of distance education pedagogy. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 12(3), 80-97.
Andrade, M. S., & Bunker, E. L. (2009). A model for self‐regulated distance language learning. Distance Education, 30(1), 47-61.
Baggaley, J. (2020). Educational distancing. Distance Education, 41(4), 582-588.
Beldarrain, Y. (2006). Distance education trends: Integrating new technologies to foster student interaction and collaboration. Distance Education, 27(2), 139-153.
Benson, R., & Samarawickrema, G. (2009). Addressing the context of e‐learning: using transactional distance theory to inform design. Distance Education, 30(1), 5-21.
Boardman, K. L., Vargas, S. A., Cotler, J. L., & Burshteyn, D. (2021). Effects of Emergency Online Learning during COVID-19 Pandemic on Student Performance and Connectedness. Information Systems Education Journal, 19(4), 23-36.
Bolliger, D. U., & Halupa, C. (2018). Online student perceptions of engagement, transactional distance, and outcomes. Distance Education, 39(3), 299-316.
Caspi, A., Gorsky, P, & Chajut, E. (2003). The influence of group size on non-mandatory asynchronous instructional discussion groups. The Internet and Higher Education, 6(3), 227-240.
Chen, L. (2023). Transactional distance and college students’ learning engagement in online learning: The chain mediating role of social presence and autonomous motivation. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 16, 2085-2101.
Chen, Y.-J. (2001). Transactional distance in World Wide Web learning environments. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 38(4): 327–338.
Chen, Y. J., & Willits, F. K. (1999). Dimensions of educational transactions in a videoconferencing learning environment. American Journal of Distance Education, 13(1), 45-59.
Demir Kaymak, Z., & Horzum, M. B. (2013). Relationship between online learning readiness and structure and interaction of online learning students. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 13(3), 1792-1797.
Dron, J., Seidel, C., & Litten, G. (2004). Transactional distance in a blended learning environment. ALT-J, 12(2), 163-174.
Ekwunife-Orakwue, K. C., & Teng, T. L. (2014). The impact of transactional distance dialogic interactions on student learning outcomes in online and blended environments. Computers & Education, 78, 414-427.
Force, D. (2004). Relationships among transactional distance variables in asynchronous computer conferences: A correlational study. Unpublished master thesis. Athabasca University, Athabasca.
Goel, L., Zhang, P., & Templeton, M. (2012). Transactional distance revisited: Bridging face and empirical validity. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(4), 1122-1129.
Handoko, H., & Ayumi, A. (2022). Designing synchronous and asynchronous activities for interactive learning. Jurnal Arbitrer, 9(2), 164-177.
Haslina, W., & Lilimiwirdi, L. (2022). The effectiveness of e-learning platform in higher institutions: A review on language, psychology, and culture. Jurnal Arbitrer, 9(2), 137-146.
Horzum, M. B. (2015). Online learning studentsperceptions of the community of inquiry based on learning outcomes and demographic variables. Croatian Journal of Education: Hrvatski časopis za odgoj i obrazovanje, 17(2), 535-567.
Horzum, M. B. (2017). Interaction, structure, social presence, and satisfaction in online learning. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 11(3), 505-512.
Huang, X., Chandra, A., DePaolo, C. A., & Simmons, L. L. (2016). Understanding transactional distance in web‐based learning environments: An empirical study. British Journal of Educational Technology, 47(4), 734-747.
Huang, H. M. (2002). Student perceptions in an online mediated environment. International Journal of Instructional Media, 29(4), 405.
Kara, M. (2021). Transactional distance and learner outcomes in an online EFL context. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 36(1), 45-60.
Kehrwald, B. (2008). Understanding social presence in text‐based online learning environments. Distance Education, 29(1), 89-106.
Kuskis, O. A. (2006). Facilitation and community in asynchronous online courses: Views and practices of expert practitioners, Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto.
Lassoued, Z., Alhendawi, M., & Bashitialshaaer, R. (2020). An exploratory study of the obstacles for achieving quality in distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Education Sciences, 10(9), 232.
Maphosa, V. (2021). Factors influencing student’s perceptions towards e-learning adoption during COVID-19 pandemic: A developing country context. European Journal of Interactive Multimedia and Education, 2(2), e02109.
Meulenbroeks, R. (2020). Suddenly fully online: A case study of a blended university course moving online during the Covid-19 pandemic. Heliyon, 6(12), e05728.
Mishra, S., Sahoo, S., & Pandey, S. (2021). Research trends in online distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Distance Education, 42(4), 494-519.
Moore, M. G. (1989). Three types of interaction. The American Journal of Distance Education, 3, 2, 1–7.
Moore, M. G. (1991). Editorial: Distance education theory. The American Journal of Distance Education, 5(3), 1–6.
Moore, M. G. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed.), Theoretical principles of distance education (pp. 22–38). New York: Routledge.
Moore, M. G. & Kearsley, G. (2005). Distance education: a systems view (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA.: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Moore, M. G. (Ed.). (2007). The theory of transactional distance. In Handbook of distance education (pp. 89-105). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Moore, M. G. (2013). The theory of transactional distance. In M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (pp. 84-103). Routledge.
Muilenburg, L. Y., & Berge, Z. L. (2005). Student barriers to online learning: A factor analytic study. Distance Education, 26(1), 29-48.
Naidu, S. (2020). It is the worst—and the best—of times! Distance Education, 41(4), 425-428.
Naidu, S. (2021a). Reimagining education futures to lead learning for tomorrow. Distance Education, 42(3), 327-330.
Naidu, S. (2021b). Building resilience in education systems post-COVID-19. Distance Education, 42(1), 1-4.
Özbey, M., & Kayri, M. (2023). Investigation of factors afecting transactional distance in E‑learning environment with artifcial neural networks. Education and Information Technologies, 28, 4399–4427.
Phirangee, K., & Malec, A. (2017). Othering in online learning: An examination of social presence, identity, and sense of community. Distance Education, 38(2), 160-172.
Priyadarshini, A., & Bhaumik, R. (2020). E-readiness of Senior School Learners to Online Learning Transition amid COVID-19 Lockdown. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 244-256.
Reyes, J. A. (2013). Transactional distance theory: is it here to stay? Distance Learning, 10(3), 43.
Russo, T. C., & Campbell, S. (2004). Perceptions of mediated presence in an asynchronous online course: Interplay of communication behaviors and medium. Distance Education, 25(2), 215-232.
Saba, F., & Shearer, R. L. (1994). Verifying key theoretical concepts in a dynamic model of distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 8(1), 36-59.
Shearer, R. L., & Park, E. (2019). The Theory of Transactional Distance. In Open and Distance Education Theory Revisited (pp. 31-38). Springer, Singapore.
Sher, A. (2009). Assessing the relationship of student-instructor and student-student interaction to student learning and satisfaction in web-based online learning environment. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 8(2), 102–120.
Stein, D. S., Wanstreet, C. E., Calvin, J., Overtoom, C., & Wheaton, J. E. (2005). Bridging the transactional distance gap in online learning environments. The American Journal of Distance Education, 19(2), 105-118.
Vasiloudis, G., Koutsouba, M., Giossos, Y., & Mavroidis, I. (2015). Transactional distance and autonomy in a distance learning environment. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-learning, 18(1), 114-122.
Xiao, J. (2017). Learner-content interaction in distance education: The weakest link in interaction research. Distance Education, 38(1), 123-135.
Xiao, J. (2024). Revisiting the theory of transactional distance: Implications for open, distance, and digital education in the 21st century. The American Journal of Distance Education, 1-14.
Adedoyin, O. B., & Soykan, E. (2020). Covid-19 pandemic and online learning: the challenges and opportunities. Interactive Learning Environments, 1-13.
Al-Mawee, W., Kwayu, K. M., & Gharaibeh, T. (2021). Student’s perspective on distance learning during COVID-19 pandemic: A case study of Western Michigan University, United States. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 2(100080), 1-3.
Anderson, T., & Dron, J. (2011). Three generations of distance education pedagogy. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 12(3), 80-97.
Andrade, M. S., & Bunker, E. L. (2009). A model for self‐regulated distance language learning. Distance Education, 30(1), 47-61.
Baggaley, J. (2020). Educational distancing. Distance Education, 41(4), 582-588.
Beldarrain, Y. (2006). Distance education trends: Integrating new technologies to foster student interaction and collaboration. Distance Education, 27(2), 139-153.
Benson, R., & Samarawickrema, G. (2009). Addressing the context of e‐learning: using transactional distance theory to inform design. Distance Education, 30(1), 5-21.
Boardman, K. L., Vargas, S. A., Cotler, J. L., & Burshteyn, D. (2021). Effects of Emergency Online Learning during COVID-19 Pandemic on Student Performance and Connectedness. Information Systems Education Journal, 19(4), 23-36.
Bolliger, D. U., & Halupa, C. (2018). Online student perceptions of engagement, transactional distance, and outcomes. Distance Education, 39(3), 299-316.
Caspi, A., Gorsky, P, & Chajut, E. (2003). The influence of group size on non-mandatory asynchronous instructional discussion groups. The Internet and Higher Education, 6(3), 227-240.
Chen, L. (2023). Transactional distance and college students’ learning engagement in online learning: The chain mediating role of social presence and autonomous motivation. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 16, 2085-2101.
Chen, Y.-J. (2001). Transactional distance in World Wide Web learning environments. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 38(4): 327–338.
Chen, Y. J., & Willits, F. K. (1999). Dimensions of educational transactions in a videoconferencing learning environment. American Journal of Distance Education, 13(1), 45-59.
Demir Kaymak, Z., & Horzum, M. B. (2013). Relationship between online learning readiness and structure and interaction of online learning students. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 13(3), 1792-1797.
Dron, J., Seidel, C., & Litten, G. (2004). Transactional distance in a blended learning environment. ALT-J, 12(2), 163-174.
Ekwunife-Orakwue, K. C., & Teng, T. L. (2014). The impact of transactional distance dialogic interactions on student learning outcomes in online and blended environments. Computers & Education, 78, 414-427.
Force, D. (2004). Relationships among transactional distance variables in asynchronous computer conferences: A correlational study. Unpublished master thesis. Athabasca University, Athabasca.
Goel, L., Zhang, P., & Templeton, M. (2012). Transactional distance revisited: Bridging face and empirical validity. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(4), 1122-1129.
Handoko, H., & Ayumi, A. (2022). Designing synchronous and asynchronous activities for interactive learning. Jurnal Arbitrer, 9(2), 164-177.
Haslina, W., & Lilimiwirdi, L. (2022). The effectiveness of e-learning platform in higher institutions: A review on language, psychology, and culture. Jurnal Arbitrer, 9(2), 137-146.
Horzum, M. B. (2015). Online learning studentsperceptions of the community of inquiry based on learning outcomes and demographic variables. Croatian Journal of Education: Hrvatski časopis za odgoj i obrazovanje, 17(2), 535-567.
Horzum, M. B. (2017). Interaction, structure, social presence, and satisfaction in online learning. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 11(3), 505-512.
Huang, X., Chandra, A., DePaolo, C. A., & Simmons, L. L. (2016). Understanding transactional distance in web‐based learning environments: An empirical study. British Journal of Educational Technology, 47(4), 734-747.
Huang, H. M. (2002). Student perceptions in an online mediated environment. International Journal of Instructional Media, 29(4), 405.
Kara, M. (2021). Transactional distance and learner outcomes in an online EFL context. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 36(1), 45-60.
Kehrwald, B. (2008). Understanding social presence in text‐based online learning environments. Distance Education, 29(1), 89-106.
Kuskis, O. A. (2006). Facilitation and community in asynchronous online courses: Views and practices of expert practitioners, Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto.
Lassoued, Z., Alhendawi, M., & Bashitialshaaer, R. (2020). An exploratory study of the obstacles for achieving quality in distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Education Sciences, 10(9), 232.
Maphosa, V. (2021). Factors influencing student’s perceptions towards e-learning adoption during COVID-19 pandemic: A developing country context. European Journal of Interactive Multimedia and Education, 2(2), e02109.
Meulenbroeks, R. (2020). Suddenly fully online: A case study of a blended university course moving online during the Covid-19 pandemic. Heliyon, 6(12), e05728.
Mishra, S., Sahoo, S., & Pandey, S. (2021). Research trends in online distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Distance Education, 42(4), 494-519.
Moore, M. G. (1989). Three types of interaction. The American Journal of Distance Education, 3, 2, 1–7.
Moore, M. G. (1991). Editorial: Distance education theory. The American Journal of Distance Education, 5(3), 1–6.
Moore, M. G. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed.), Theoretical principles of distance education (pp. 22–38). New York: Routledge.
Moore, M. G. & Kearsley, G. (2005). Distance education: a systems view (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA.: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Moore, M. G. (Ed.). (2007). The theory of transactional distance. In Handbook of distance education (pp. 89-105). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Moore, M. G. (2013). The theory of transactional distance. In M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (pp. 84-103). Routledge.
Muilenburg, L. Y., & Berge, Z. L. (2005). Student barriers to online learning: A factor analytic study. Distance Education, 26(1), 29-48.
Naidu, S. (2020). It is the worst—and the best—of times! Distance Education, 41(4), 425-428.
Naidu, S. (2021a). Reimagining education futures to lead learning for tomorrow. Distance Education, 42(3), 327-330.
Naidu, S. (2021b). Building resilience in education systems post-COVID-19. Distance Education, 42(1), 1-4.
Özbey, M., & Kayri, M. (2023). Investigation of factors afecting transactional distance in E‑learning environment with artifcial neural networks. Education and Information Technologies, 28, 4399–4427.
Phirangee, K., & Malec, A. (2017). Othering in online learning: An examination of social presence, identity, and sense of community. Distance Education, 38(2), 160-172.
Priyadarshini, A., & Bhaumik, R. (2020). E-readiness of Senior School Learners to Online Learning Transition amid COVID-19 Lockdown. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 244-256.
Reyes, J. A. (2013). Transactional distance theory: is it here to stay? Distance Learning, 10(3), 43.
Russo, T. C., & Campbell, S. (2004). Perceptions of mediated presence in an asynchronous online course: Interplay of communication behaviors and medium. Distance Education, 25(2), 215-232.
Saba, F., & Shearer, R. L. (1994). Verifying key theoretical concepts in a dynamic model of distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 8(1), 36-59.
Shearer, R. L., & Park, E. (2019). The Theory of Transactional Distance. In Open and Distance Education Theory Revisited (pp. 31-38). Springer, Singapore.
Sher, A. (2009). Assessing the relationship of student-instructor and student-student interaction to student learning and satisfaction in web-based online learning environment. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 8(2), 102–120.
Stein, D. S., Wanstreet, C. E., Calvin, J., Overtoom, C., & Wheaton, J. E. (2005). Bridging the transactional distance gap in online learning environments. The American Journal of Distance Education, 19(2), 105-118.
Vasiloudis, G., Koutsouba, M., Giossos, Y., & Mavroidis, I. (2015). Transactional distance and autonomy in a distance learning environment. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-learning, 18(1), 114-122.
Xiao, J. (2017). Learner-content interaction in distance education: The weakest link in interaction research. Distance Education, 38(1), 123-135.
Xiao, J. (2024). Revisiting the theory of transactional distance: Implications for open, distance, and digital education in the 21st century. The American Journal of Distance Education, 1-14.
Article Sidebar
Published
Mar 21, 2025
Article Details
How to Cite
Murad Abdu Saeed, Su Kia, L., Ahmed Ali Mahdi, & Almaamari, A. A. (2025). EFL Students’ Experience in Distance Learning during COVID-19 from a Multidimensional Transactional Distance Perspective . Jurnal Arbitrer, 12(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.1.1-13.2025
Issue
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Author Biographies
Murad Abdu Saeed, Universiti Malaya
Department of the English Language, Faculty of Languages and Linguistics
Lau Su Kia, Universiti Malaya
Department of Malaysian Languages & Applied Linguistics
https://umexpert.um.edu.my/lausk.html